US Army Corps of Engineers New Orleans District
Cultural Rescores Series
Report Number: COELMN/PD-89/04
A Research Design for Cultural Resources Investigations in the Vicinity of Fort Jackson, Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana
Final Report
April 1990
Coastal Environments Inc.
Baton, Rouge, LA., 70802
504-383-7455
Prepared for:
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
New Orleans District
P.O. Box 60267
New Orleans, LA 70160-0267
Fort Jackson during the Civil War Pages 48-74
By: Donald G. Hunter and Sally K. Reeves
New Orleans, situated near the mouth of the Mississippi River, was the South’s largest city, the seat of commerce for the western states, and the Confederacy’s leading industrial center. Therefore, the defense of the city was necessary for the survival of the rebellion. Military strategists on both sides realized that the capture of New Orleans would be required to gain control of the Mississippi and, subsequently divide the Confederacy.
Fort Jackson and St. Philip were regarded as the primary defensive fortifications guarding New Orleans. The other water approaches to the city, protected by Forts Pike, Livingston, and Macomb, were generally too shallow for large naval craft to navigate. If the Union Navy was to launch an assault against New Orleans from the Gulf of Mexico, it would first have to pass Forts Jackson and St. Philip.
Under the direction of Louisiana Governor Thomas O. Moore, both Forts Jackson and St. Philip were seized by state troops on 10 January 1861, some 16 days prior to Louisiana’s secession from the Union. Forces under the command of Major Paul E. Theard met no resistance at Fort Jackson where Ordnance Sergeant H. Smith surrendered to Theard’s superior forces. St. Philip, at that time, was not garrisoned. Within five days, a small detachment of Louisiana militia relieved Theard’s troops and occupied both forts. Brigadier-General J. K. Duncan, a West Point graduate, subsequently assumed command of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and immediately began initiating repairs and training the garrisons (Greene 1982; Landry 1938:24-25).
By December, the artillery at Fort Jackson had been slightly strengthened by Duncan’s efforts to include 69 pieces of ordnance: ten 24-pounder howitzers, two 48-pounders, two, 9-in mortars, one 10-in mortar, one 10-in columbiad, three 8-in columbiads, twenty-six 24-pounders, and six 42-pounders. St. Philip had 45 pieces consisting of three field pieces, one 10-in mortar, one 8-in mortar, four 8-in columbiads, twenty-two 24-pounders, nine 32-pounders, and six 42-pounders (Landry 1938:26-27). Despite the armament maintained at the forts, both Duncan and Brigadier General Mansfield Lovell, who had been assigned the task of the defense of New Orleans and the lower coast, agreed that the addition of heavy guns and an obstruction in the river would be required to stop the passage of a steam-powered fleet. Under the direction of Confederate General P. T. Beauregard, Lovell constructed a raft barrier in the river between the two forts. By February, a large amount of drift had accumulated along the obstruction, and the strong current of the Mississippi caused the barrier to break. The chain was repaired but broke again during a severe storm. Repairs were made a second time using hulks of old ships anchored in the river and connected together with large cables. Attempts by Lovell to obtain huge chains to strengthen the barrier were unsuccessful (Green 1982: 147-148; Landry 1938:28-30).
Lovell tried desperately to obtain heavy guns from Richmond and Pensacola. However, most of the Confederate military strategists belived an attack on New Orleans would come from upriver and that heavy guns should be placed there, not on the lower river. Three 10-in columbiads and five mortars were finally sent to Forts Jackson and St. Philip, as well as twelve 24-pounders (Stewart 1904:253-254). Early in 1862, Duncan completed the exterior water battery immediately below Fort Jackson, which mounted one 10-in seacoast mortar, two 32-pounder rifled guns, one 10-in columbiad, and two 8-in columbiads. The total armament of Fort Jackson included seventy-four pieces: fourteen 24-pounder smoothbores mounted in the casemates; ten 24-pounder flanking howitzers; one 6-pounder fieldpiece; one 12-pounder in the parade; one 8-in howitzer; one 7 3/8-in howitzer; eleven 24-pounders; fifteen 32-pounders, six 42-pounders; two 10-in columbiads; three 8-in columbiads; two 8-in mortars; and one 7-in rifled gun mounted en barbette on the ramparts, in addition to the guns in the exterior water battery (Green 1982:143). St. Philip on the east bank of the river mounted fifty-two artillery pieces of types similar to those found in Fort Jackson with the notable exception of one 13-in seacoast mortar (Green 1982:143-144).
As early as the fall of 1861 Union military leaders were developing a plan to capture New Orleans by an assault launched from the Gulf of Mexico. The plan, developed by Commander David D. Porter of the mortar flotilla of the West Gulf Blockading Squadron, called for the reduction of Forts Jackson and St. Philip by bombardment, the passage of the forts, and the subsequent capture of New Orleans. Porter’s plan was approved by President Lincoln and Union military leaders on 15 November 1861, and on 9 January 1862 Commander David G. Farragut was commissioned as flag officer.
Farragut received his orders on 20 January 1862, prior to departing to the Gulf to assume his command:
When these formidable mortars arrive and you are completely ready, you will collect such vessels as can be spared from the blockade and proceed up the Mississippi River and reduce the defense which guard the approaches to New Orleans, and when you will appear off that city and take possession of it under the guns of your squadron, and hoist the American flag thereon, keeping possession until troops can be sent to you. If the Mississippi expedition from Cairo shall not have descended the river, you will take advantage of the panic to push a strong force up the river to take all their defenses in the rear. You will also reduce the fortifications which defend Mobile Bay and turn them over to the army to hold, as you have expressed yourself satisfied with the force given to you, and as many more powerful vessels will be added before you can commence operations, the Department and the country will require of you success [Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, I: XVIII: 8 quoted in Landry 1938:42].
That February, forces under the command of General Benjamin P. Butler occupied Ship Island, located in the Gulf south of Biloxi. At headquarters established there, Farragut’s fleet assembled and formulated the final invasion plans. Instrumental in the development of this offensive strategy was a report to the Union Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Wells, from Brigadier General J. G. Barnard, who had been one of the builders of Fort Jackson. Barnard’s report included sketches of Fort Jackson and its environs. It suggested that a mortar fleet of 20 boats and a naval contingent of 300 guns could successfully reduce the forts by bombardment and run the forts under heavy shelling during the night. Barnard reasoned that troops landed above and to the rear of Fort Jackson, and Fort St. Philip could lay siege to both and force their surrender. Once the forts fell, New Orleans would immediately surrender, Louisiana would fall, and the Union would have complete control of the Mississippi River (Landry 1938:43).
Butler’s occupation of Ship Island in February made in evident to the Rebel commanders that any attack on New Orleans would come from the mouth of the Mississippi. Consequently, immediate measures were undertaken to strengthen the downriver defenses. At Quarantine Station, located a short distance above the forts, 500 militiamen of the Chalmette Regiment were stationed to repulse any attack on Fort Jackson of Fort St. Philip by infantry or marines. Below the forts, in the woods were positioned to harass the enemy’s advance. The garrison of the forts and the other Regiment, Louisiana Volunteers; St. Mary’s cannoneers; Company C, Confederate Recruits; Company B, Twenty-fourth Regiment, Louisiana Volunteers; and Massicot’s Company of the Chalmette Regiment (Landry 1938:27).
Above the forts, a Confederate flotilla of 22 vessels under the command of Captain J. K. Mitchell was assembled (Table 1). Most of the boats, such as the Jackson, the Governor Moore (Figure 6), and the General Quitman, were converted steamers that mounted one or two 32-pounder smoothbore guns and had cotton and pine bulkheads. Others, such as the Defiance, the Resolute, and the Warrior, were additionally…
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Table 1. Confederate Vessels Used at Fort Jackson during Porter’s Bombardment.
Belle Algerine: A small, unarmed, steam-powered tug commanded by Captain Jackson. The Boat was used to maneuver fire rafts sent downriver to destroy Federal Vessels. This Vessel was Destroyed by the Rebel steamer Governor Moore during the Union passage of the forts on 24 April 1862 (Stewart 1904:249,250,270,291,297,305).
Breckinridge: A converted, steam-power towboat having one gun of unspecified size and a crew of approximately 35 men. The vessel was commanded by Captain James B. Smith and was destroyed during the Union passage of the forts on 24 April 1862 (Stewart 1904:249,250,291,296).
Defiance: A converted, steam-powered towboat commanded by Captain Joseph D. McCoy. The Vessel had cotton bulkheads, an iron prow, and was armed with a 32-pounder smoothbore mounted aft on an Army carriage. The boat was left behind at the forts after the Union passage of the forts on 24 April 1862 but was destroyed on 28 April 1862 to prevent her from falling into enemy hands (Stewart 1904:158,249,250,263,291).
General Lovell: A converted, steam-powered towboat having one gun of unspecified size and a crew of less than 50 men. The vessel was commanded by Captain Burdett Paris and was destroyed during the Union passage of the forts on 24 April 1862(Stewart 1904:250,291).
General Quitman: A converted sea steamer with cotton and pine bulkheads and two 32-pounder smoothbore guns. The vessel had formerly been named the Orzaba or the Galveston and was commanded by Alexander Grant. The boat was destroyed during the Union passage of the forts on 24 April 1862 (Stewart 1904:250,291,296).
Governor Moore: A converted sea steamer described as a “black gunboat with two masts.” The vessels was armed with two 32-pounder smoothbore guns and commanded by Commander Beverly Kennon, a former U. S. Naval Officer. During the Union passage of the forts on 24 April 1862, this vessel, protected by cotton and pine barricades, lost between 57 and 73 of its 93-man crew. The Governor Moore, formerly named the Charles Morgan, grounded near Quarantine station while pursing the Federal fleet upriver on 24 April 1862. The boat was destroyed by its crew to prevent it from falling into enemy hands (Stewart 1904:208,249,251,305-307).
Jackson: A steamer commanded by Francis B. Renshaw. The vessel was armed with two light 32-pounder smoothbore guns, one mounted fore and the other, aft. The boat was removed to Quarantine Station prior to 24 April 1862 and subsequently escaped to New Orleans ahead of the Federal fleet (Stewart 1904:249,291,197).
Landis: An unarmed steamer commanded by Captain Davis. This vessel served as tender to the Confederate ironclad Louisiana and survived the Union passage of the forts on 24 April 1862 (Stewart 1904:249,250,291).
Launch No. 3: A vessel of unspecified size commanded by R. H. Tilford. The boat was manned by a crew of approximately 20 men and was armed with one howitzer of unspecified size. Launch No. 3 was removed to Quarantine Station prior to 24 April 1862 where it was captured (Stewart 1904: 241,291).
Launch No. 6: A vessel of undetermined size commanded by C. B. Fairbanks. The vessel was armed with one howitzer of unspecified size and was manned by a crew of about 20 men. On the morning of 24 April, Launch No. 6 was sent downriver to signal any enemy movement and reportedly left its position without signaling the advance. The boat withdrew to a point near the Louisiana. Her crew abandoned ship and fled into the swamps. Launch No. 6 burned with the Louisiana on 28 April 1862 (Stewart 1904:249,294,299).
Louisiana: An uncompleted, steam-power ironclad battery designed to mount sixteen guns. The vessel was commanded by Charles F. McIntosh and reportedly was manned by a crew of between two and three hundred men. On 24 April 1862, the Louisiana mounted between seven and ten guns and was unable to navigate under her own power. The Louisiana was set afire by the Confederate Navy during the negotiations for the surrender of the forts on 28 April 1862 and subsequently exploded near St. Philip (Stewart 1904:158,249,250,274).
McRae: A steam-power gunboat commanded by Thomas B. Huger. The vessel was armed with eight guns included six light 32-pounder smoothbore broadside guns, one 9-in pivot shell gun mounted amidship, and one 12-pounder howitzer mounted on the poop. The McRae was heavily damaged during the Union passage of the forts on 24 April 1862, but did not sink. She was dispatched to New Orleans with the Confederate wounded where she later sank. (Stewart 1904:158,249,250,270,345).
Manassas: A steam-powered, iron-plated ram commanded by Alexander F. Waverly. The ram was manned by a crew of between 30 and 35 men and was armed with one 32-pounder cannonade in her bow. The Manassas ran aground on the morning of 24 April 1862 where she received heavy broadside fire from passing Union vessels. Her crew abandoned ship and the ram slipped off shore and sank into the river (Stewart 1904:248).
Mosher: A small steam-powered, unarmed tug commanded by Captain Sherman. This small tug had a crew of about 50 men and was employed in maneuvering fire rafts against the Federal fleet. The Mosher was destroyed while pushing such a raft down on a heavy sloop on 24 April 1862 (Stewart 1904:249,250,270,291,295).
Morgan: A steamer with an iron-clad bow commanded by Beverly Kennon. The number of types of guns she mounted has not been determined. She was set of fire during an engagement with the U. S. S. Varuna on 24 April 1862 (Stewart 1904:248).
Music: A small, unarmed steamer commanded by Captain McClellen. The vessel was chartered by the Confederate Army and used as a tender to the forts. The Music was destroyed on 24 April 1862 (Stewart 1904:270,271).
Phoenix: A small, unarmed steamer commanded by James Brown. The Phoenix served as tender to the ram Manassas and was destroyed on the morning of 24 April 1862 (Stewart 1904:249,250,291,297).
Resolute: A converted, steam-powered towboat commanded by Isaac Hooper. The boat had a forty-man crew and was armed with two guns of unspecified size. Additionally, the Resolute had an iron prow and cotton bulkheads. She ran aground approximately 1 mi above the forts and subsequently burned (Stewart 1904:249,250,263,270,291,296).
Star: A vessel of undetermined size commanded by Captain LaPlace. The boat was chartered by the army and used as a telegraph station (Stewart 1904:291).
Stonewall Jackson: A converted towboat with a crew of less than 30 men commanded by George M. Phillips. The vessel had cotton bulkheads, an iron prow, and one gun of undetermined size. She was destroyed on 24 April 1862 during the Union passage of the forts (Stewart 1904:249,250,263,291).
W. Burton: A small, unarmed steamer which served as tender to the ironclad battery Louisiana. The vessel was commanded by Captain Brown and was captured by Farragut’s fleet. (Stewart 1904:250,291).
Warrior: A converted, three-masted, propeller-driven towboat commanded by John Stevenson. The vessel had cotton bulkheads, an iron prow, and one gun of unspecified size. The Warrior ran aground after receiving heavy broadside fire from the U. S. S. Brooklin just above St. Phillip where her 40-man crew abandoned her (Stewart 1904:185,249,250,263,291,296).
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…outfitted with iron prows designed for ramming enemy vessels. There was also the McRae (Figure 7), a steam-powered gunboat which mounted eight guns: six, light, 32-pounder broadside guns; one 9-in pivot gun mounted amidship; and one 12-pounder howitzer mounted on the poop. Among the more formidable Confederate vessels was the iron-plated ram Manassas (Figure 8 and 9) and the yet uncompleted ironclad batter Louisiana.
On 13 March 1862, Porter’s mortar flotilla arrived at Ship Island. By this time the vanguard of Farragut’s fleet had entered Southwest Pass. It took nearly three weeks to tow the Union fleet across the bar at the mouth of the river. Many of the larger vessels had to be stripped of guns and armament to lighten them until they reached the deeper channel of the river (Landry 1938:44). On 9 April 1862 a Confederate reconnaissance boat on the lower river was chased by Union gunboats to a point just below the forts. The batteries of Jackson and St. Phillip opened fire, and the Federal gunboats withdrew unharmed. Four days later, on 13 April, several of Farragut’s gunboats ascended the river and briefly engaged the Rebel batteries. Confederate sharpshooters below Fort Jackson, many of whom were wading waist deep in the cypress trees along the river, opened fire on the boats and were dispersed by a return of grape and canister from the Union gunboats (Stewart 1904:264). These gunboats had been dispatched to escort a coast survey party under Ferdinand H. Gerdes who had been sent by Farragut to make an accurate map of the river below the forts and ascertain the range of the Confederate batteries (Navy Department 1971:II:42,50).
By 16 April 1862, Farragut had towed all of his fleet across the bar at the mouth of the river and had moved upstream to a point just below the forts. The Federal Fleet contained 21 armed vessels (Table 2) in addition to an equal number of mortar schooners (Table 3), commanded by Captain David D. Porter. The guns in the Federal fleet greatly outnumbered those in the Confederate flotilla. Most of the northern ships mounted two heavy-rifled guns in addition to numerous broadside cannons of various sizes. Porter’s mortar schooners each carried one 13-in seacoast mortar, capable of delivering 200-pound projectile a distance of 4300 yards, as well as two 12-pounder howitzers.
By 18 April, Farragut had positioned Porter’s mortar flotilla behind a line of woods some 3000 yards below Fort Jackson (Figures 10 and 11). At 9:00 a.m., the Federal fleet opened with the mortars and rifled guns, concentrating most of their fire on Fort Jackson. Most of the Confederate return fire fell short because of lack of elevation and the inferiority of the powder. Even the Rebel’s closet gun, a 10-in seacoast mortar in the water battery below Fort Jackson, could not reach the Federal fleet (Stewart 1904:266). The bombardment continued throughout the day, only to cease at 7:00 p.m. after delivering 1997 mortar shells. Although the Union gunners could not see their target, their shells fell with amazing accuracy. Their bombs cut the levees surrounding Jackson, allowing the high water of the river to flood the fort to a depth of 18in. Most of the buildings outside the fort were destroyed, the citadel was fired, and the magazines threatened (Stewart 1904:264).
At six-o’clock on the morning of the nineteenth, the mortar fire resumed. The rebels responded with heavy shelling from St. Phillip and the water battery of Fort Jackson. One of the mortar schooners, the Maria J. Carrolton, was hit by a solid shot and sunk. Farragut dispatched three gunboats, the Oneida, the Sciota, and the Pinola, to draw fire off the mortar-flotilla. The Oneida was hit three times by a 10-in solid shot fired from a columbiad at the fort. Nine men abroad the vessel were wounded. Her 11-in pivot gun and one 32-pounder were disabled. The Oneida withdrew with heavy damage, but did not sink.
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Table 2: Union vessels under the Command of Flag Officer D. G. Farragut during the Civil war Engagement at Fort Jackson.
Brooklin: a steam-powered sloop commanded by Captain T. T. Craven. The boat was listed as having eleven guns including 9-in guns and 80-pounder Dahlgren rifle. On 24 April 1862, the Brooklin was rammed by the Manassas and extensively damaged by fire from the forts and Confederate steamers. She was struck 39 times by enemy fire and her crew lost 9 men killed and 26 wounded (Stewart 1904:151,182-183,185,191-193,197).
Cayuga: A gunboat commanded by Lieutenant Commanding Harrison. The Cayuga’s armament included an 11-in Dahlgren and a Parrott rifle. During the engagement with the forts and the Confederate flotilla on 24 April 1862, this vessel received 42 shells which broke both masts and extensively damaged the gunboat. None of her crew were killed; six were wounded (Stewart 1904:132,151,171,173,174).
Colorado: A steam-powered frigate under the command of Captain T. Bailey.
Hartford: Farragut’s flagship, commanded by Commander R. Wainwright. The vessel’s armament included, in addition to broadside guns, one 20-pounder rifle gun and on e9-in Dahlgren. During the passage of the forts on 24 April 1862, the Hartford was confronted by the Manassas pushing a fire raft. In an effort to dodge the raft, the Hartford ran aground where she caught fire. Her crew was able to extinguish the blaze. With the U. S. S. Mississippi intervening between the Confederate ram and the Hartford, the ship was able to slip back in the river and, again, get underway (Stewart 1904:142,151:167,169-170).
Iroquois: A gunboat under Commander John De Camp. Besides her broadside guns, the Iroquois is listed as having a Sawyer gun. After passing Jackson and St. Phillip on the morning of 24 April 1862, the Iroquois received a ranking fire of grape and langrape (grape made from copper slugs) from the C. S. S. McRae. Afterwards, she engaged between 5 and 6 Rebel steamers and captured the Confederate Launch No. 3 and her 40-man crew. The Iroquois’ crew sustained 8 killed and 24 wounded (Stewart 1904:140,151,221,222).
Itasca: A gunboat under the command of Lieutenant Commanding Ransom. On 20 April 1862, the Itasca, along with the Kineo and the Pinola, were dispatched to destroy the chain obstruction stretching in the river between Forts Jackson and St. Phillip. The Itasca was in Farragut’s 3rd Division on the morning of 24 April 1862 during the fleet’s attempt to pass the forts. With the approaching dawn, the ship became a clear target for the Confederate gunners. The Itasca was hit 14 times. With a 42-pounder shot through her boiler, the ship lost power and drifted downstream, where she was anchored and pumped out. The vessel’s crew endured few casualties. Only three men were wounded, two of these by steam (Stewart 1904:138,151,226).
Katahdin: A gunboat in Farragut’s 1st Division commanded by Lieutenant Commanding G. H. Preble. In addition to her broadside armament, the Katahdin mounted an 11-in pivot gun and a Parrott rifle. During the passage of the forts on 24 April 1862, the Katahdin was hit only twice and had no casualties (Stewart 1904:132,151,215-217).
Kennebec: A gunboat in Farragut’s 3rd Division under the command of Lieutenant J. H. Russell. On 24 April 1862, while attempting to run the forts, the Kennebec became entangled in the chain obstruction until daylight. Unable to pass with the remainder of the fleet, the ship turned back downriver (Stewart 1904:132,151).
Kineo: A gunboat under the command of Lieutenant Commanding C. H. B. Caldwell. On 20 April 1862, the Kineo was sent with the Pinola and the Itasca to destroy the chain barrier. On the morning of 24 April 1862, while attempting to run the forts, a Rebel fire-raft caused the collision of the Kineo with the U. S. S. Sciota. Both vessels were dragged across the bow of the U. S. S. Mississippi and were extensively damaged. The Kineo’s armament included an 11-in gun, a 20-pounder Parrott rifle, and 24-pounder howitzers (Stewart 1904:132,134-135,138,220).
Miami: A steamer assigned to Porter’s mortar flotilla. Her armament included two forward 9-in guns, a 9-in pivot gun mounted aft, and 32-pounder forward broadside guns. The Miami was positioned just below the water battery at Fort Jackson to cover the Federal fleet’s passage of the forts (Stewart 1904:383).
Mississippi: A side-wheel, steam frigate under Commander M. Smith. The vessel was 1732 tons, 225 ft long, 40 ft wide and 23 ½ ft deep. Her armament consisted of nineteen 8-in broadside guns, one 10-in Dahlgren and one 20-pounder Parrot rifle. On 24 April 1862, the Mississippi ran the Confederate ram Manassas aground and severely damaged her with two broadsides delivered at close range. During this engagement, the Mississippi received 10 hits and extensive damage on her port quarter below the waterline. Repairs were made and nearly a year later, on 14 March 1863, she was lost in the Mississippi River near Port Hudson (Shomette 1973:104; Stewart 1904:142,151,205).
Pensacola: A steam-powered sloop under the command of Captain H. W. Morris. The Pensacola’s armament, in addition to her broadside guns included an 11-in pivot gun, an 80-pounder rifled gun in the forward section, and a rifled howitzer aft. During the attack on Forts Jackson and St. Phillip on the morning of 24 April 1862, the ship rescued seven officers and 60 men off the U. S. S. Varuna. The Pensacola received relatively little damage during the engagement, only being hit nine times (Stewart 1904:151,201-204).
Pinola: A steam-powered gunboat under the command of Lieutenant Commanding Crosby. On 20 April 1862, the Pinola was dispatched along with the Kineo and the Itasca, to destroy the chain obstruction between the forts. The vessel’s ordinance, beside her broadside guns included an 11-in Dahlgren pivot gun and 20-pounder Parrott rifles. During the engagement with Fort Jackson and St. Philip on 24 April 1862, the Pinola received moderate damage. Three men in her crew were killed and eight were wounded. (Stewart 1904:132,138,151,222-223).
Portsmouth: A sloop under the command of Commander Samuel Swartout. During the attack on Fort Jackson on the morning of 24 April 1862, the Portsmouth was towed into position below the water battery to provide cover fire for the remainder of the fleet (Stewart 1904:141,151,228).
Richmond: A steam-powered gunboat under the command of Commander James Alden. On 24 April 1862, the Richmond’s crew had three men killed and four wounded (Stewart 1904:151,199).
Sciota: A converted, wooden, two-masted schooner with screw-type propulsion. She was described as 507 tons, 158 ft long, 28 ft wide and 12 ft deep. Her armament included one 20-pounder Parrott rifle and two 24-pounder howitzers. The Sciota, under the command of Lieutenant Commanding Donaldson, was in Farragut’s third division of gunboats during the attack on Forts Jackson and St. Phillip. On the morning of 24 April 1862, a confederate fire raft caused the collision of the Sciota and the Kineo, both of which were dragged across the bow of the Mississippi and heavily damaged (Shomette 1973:139; Stewart 1904:134-135,151,175).
Varuna: A screw steam corvette of about 1300 tons under the command of Commander C. J. Boggs. The Varuna’s armament included six 8-in smoothbores (62 cwt), two 8-in smoothbores (55 cwt), and two 32-pounder Parrott rifles. After running Forts Jackson and St. Philip on the morning of 24 April 1862, the Varuna was engaged by two Rebel steamers, the Governor Moore and the Morgan. The Varuna sank a short distance above the forts after sinking both of her attackers Shomette1973:158; Stewart 1904: 132,151,157,214,306).
Westfield: A steam-powered gunboat assigned to Porter’s mortar fleet. The Westfield escorted the Coast Survey part while surveying the river below the forts prior to the Federal Fleet’s bombardment. The Ship’s Armament included 9-in and 8-in smoothbores and a 100-pounder rifled gun (Stewart 1904:389).
Winona: A steam-powered gunboat in Farragut’s third division command by Lieutenant E. T. Nichols. While attempting to run the forts on the morning of 24 April 1862, the Winona hung up on the chain obstruction and received heavy fire from Jackson and St. Philip. After sustaining numerous casualties, the Winona finally cleared the barrier and returned downriver to the mortar fleet (Stewart 1904:132,151,226-227).
Wissahickon: A steam-powered gunboat in Farragut’s first division commanded by Lieutenant Commanding A. N. Smith. During the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip on the morning of 24 April 1862, the Wissahickon received five shots. Her crew suffered only two wounded and none killed (Stewart 1904:132,151).
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At fort Jackson, the mortar shelling cut up the terreplein and the parade. Parpets and platforms were destroyed, and the casemates were heavily damaged (Figure 12). One 10-in columbiad, one 8-in columbiad, one 32-pounder, one 24-pounder, one 10-in mortar in the main work, and two 32-pounders in the water battery were disabled. Despite the severity of the damage done to Fort Jackson, the water battery outside the fort kept returning fire against the Federal fleet (Stewart 1904:136-137,266).
Mortar fire from Porter’s Flotilla continued throughout the night of the nineteenth. Farragut believed the shelling was having little effect on Fort Jackson because of the intensity of the return fire from the confederate Batteries. However, on 20 April the Federal forces apprehended a deserter from Fort Jackson, who informed the Union commanders of the destruction and demoralized conditions at the fort. That night, Farragut sent his second in command, Captain H. H. Bell, with two gunboats, the Pinola and the Itasca, to destroy the chain obstruction between the forts. Under the cover of darkness and a heavy fire from the mortar flotilla, the crew of the gunboats were not able to destroy the chain but were able to open a gap large enough for the fleet to pass. Confederate fire from the forts prevented the Yankees from completing their mission, and the Federal gunboats withdrew after taking a ranking fire (Landry 1938:46; Stewart 1904:135,266).
The bombardment of Fort Jackson continued day and night on the twenty-first and twenty-second. On the night of 21 April, the Confederate ironclad battery Louisiana, still uncompleted, arrived from New Orleans. Farragut continued to doubt that Porter’s mortars could silence the guns at Fort Jackson. The Union ammunition supply was running low, and the mortar crews were near exhaustion. As early as 21 April, Farragut had considered attempting to run the forts; however, unfavorable winds and a strong current increased the probability that his vessels might collide during a night assault (Landry 1938:47-48; Stewart 1904:266-267).
Duncan, assuming that the mortar fleet’s ammunition would soon be exhausted, anticipated that Farragut would bring his large ships into action against the forts. Desperately, he tried to persuade Mitchell to bring the Louisiana to a point a short distance below St. Philip to disperse the mortar fleet and repel any attempt by the Union fleet to run the forts. Mitchell, however, refused to move the ironclad battery in the direct line of fire of the Federal vessels.
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Table 3: Union Mortar Schooners under the Command of Captain David D. Porter during the Bombardment of Fort Jackson. (Reference Stewart 1904:363.)
1st Division:
Arletta
C. P. Williams
Norfolk Packet
Oliver H. Lee
Para
William Bacon
2nd Division:
Adolph Hugel
George Mangham
Maria J. Carlton*
Mathew Vassar
Orvetta
Sydney C. Jones
T. A. Ward
3rd Division:
Dan Smith
Henry James
Horace Beals (Bark)
John Griffith
Racer Sarah Bruen
Sea Foam (hermaphrodite brig)
* Destroyed by fire from Confederate batteries during the bombardment of Fort Jackson.
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On the night of 23 April 1862 Farragut Sent Lieutenant Commander Caldwell in the Itasca to insure that the obstruction across the river was still open. The Confederates ignited fires along the riverbanks and released several fire rafts that exposed the Itasca to the enemy’s raking fire. The Itasca withdrew, remarkably without serious injury, to report that the chain had not been repaired.
The mortar bombardment continued until midnight on the twenty-third. The Confederate command dispatched Launch No. 6, under the command of C. B. Fairbanks, down a short distance below the forts to signal any enemy advance. At two o’clock on the morning of 24 April, when the Federal fleet weighed anchor to begin its assault, Fairbanks withdrew without signaling the enemy’s approach, grounded his boat, and with his crew fled into the swamps.
The Union Navy’s advance came in two columns, which were divided into three divisions. The first division was commanded by Captain Theodorus Bailey. It was composed of eight vessels led by the divisional flag gunboat Cayuga (Figure 13), which was followed by the Pensacola (Figure 14), the Mississippi, the Oneida (Figure 15), the Varuna (Figure 16), the Katahdin, the Kineo, and the Wissahickon, in respective order.
The second division, under flag officer Farragut, consisted of three vessels, the Hartford, the Brooklyn, and the Richmond (Figure 17). Command H. H. Bell led the third division. The boats in Bell’s division, listed in the order of placement, included the divisional flag gunboat Sciota, the Iroquois, the Kennebec, the Pinola, the Itasca, and the Winona (Landry 1938:51, 52; Stewart 1904:164). It was nearly 3:30 a.m. when the entire fleet got underway. In silence, Bailey’s division passed through the break in the chain to open fire on Fort St. Philip with broadsides of grape and canister. The mortar flotilla (Figure 17) initiated its most intensive shelling of the bombardment to provide cover for the passing fleet. Four of Farragut’s vessels, the Colorado, the Westfield, the Portsmouth, and the Miami, closed within 200 yards of Fort Jackson’s water battery and drove the Confederate gunners from their cannon with a raking fire of canister and grape (Stewart 1904:168,238,383,389).
The second division held close to the west bank and poured canister and grape shot into Fort Jackson. Return fire from the Confederate batteries generally passed over the Federal gunboats without doing much damage. The ships of the second division, the Hartford, Brooklin, and Richmond, were larger vessels than most in the Union fleet, and, therefore, drew fire from both forts. Crossing the river, the second division emptied their broadsides into Fort St. Philip, driving the Rebels from the Parapets with canister and grape.
Above the forts, the passing fleet encountered the Confederate flotilla. The Hartford was engaged by the iron-plated ram Manassas, which was pushing a fire raft. Attempting to dodge the ram, the Hartford ran aground and was soon ablaze. The Mississippi came to the aid of the Harford, running the Manassas aground. After receiving two broadsides, the crew of the ram abandoned her to see the vessel slide downstream into the river eventually to sink (Stewart 1904:142,157). The crew of the Hartford extinguished the blaze on ship and successfully got her back underway.
Although the fighting in the river was bitter, the Union fleet amazingly lost only one ship, the Varuna. Above the forts, the Varuna was attacked by two Rebel steamers, one of which was the Governor Moore. After being rammed by the Confederate vessels and cut up by their shot, the Varuna sank, but not before sinking both of her attackers (Stewart 1904:157). Three other Federal vessels of the third division, the Itasca, the Kennebec, and the Winona, were feared lost. With approaching daylight, the ships of the third division, silhouetted against early morning sky, became easy targets for the Confederate gunners. The Winona and the Kennebec became entangled in remnants of the chain and were badly cut up before freeing themselves and returning downriver. The Itasca received a 42-pounder solid shot through her boiler, lost power, and drifted downstream where she grounded (Stewart 1904:226-227). The Confederate river fleet fared far worse. Thirteen vessels-the Belle Algerine, the Breckinridge, the General Lovell, the General Quitman, the Governor Moore, the Manassas, the Mosher, the Morgan, the Music, the Phoenix, the Resolute, the Stonewall Jackson, and the Warrior- were either destroyed by enemy fire of grounded and burned by their own crews to prevent them from being captured by the Union fleet (Landry 1938:64; Stewart 1904:208,263,270,291,295-297).
After Farragut’s ships passed the forts, the mortar flotilla ceased its bombardment. The fleet continued upriver to Quarantine Station where Bailey captured and subsequently paroled 500 men of the Chalmette Regiment commanded by Captain Symanski. The dead of the northern fleet were buried at Quarantine Station, and the wounded were disembarked and treated. Telegraph wires connecting the forts with New Orleans were cut, and the fleet departed for the city at 10:00 a.m. (Landry 1938:65-66; Stewart 1904:157). Concurrently, Porter who had remained with his schooners below the forts sent the Owasco to demand the surrender of the garrisons. Duncan refused and the mortar fleet resumed their bombardment until dark (Landry 1938:75).
Until this time, Porter was unaware that the McRae and the ironclad battery Louisiana were anchored near Fort St. Philip. Porter did not know the Louisiana was still uncompleted and naval intelligence indicated that she was one of the most powerful ironclads yet constructed. Not having heavy rifled guns to pierce the Louisiana’s armor, Porter left six gunboats below the forts and withdrew his mortar schooners to Pilot town (Landry: 1938:75).
On 25 April 1862, no exchange of fire between the forts and the Union gunboats transpired. Farragut had reached New Orleans and demanded its surrender. Meanwhile, plans were being made to land Butler’s troops at Quarantine Station and behind Fort St. Philip to lay siege to the forts and force their surrender. Two days later, on the morning of 27 April, troops of the Fourth Wisconsin, the Twenty-sixth Massachusetts, and the Twenty-first Indiana started landing at Quarantine Station. That day, Porter again dispatched a gunboat under a flag of truce to demand the surrender of the forts. Again, Duncan refused. That night the garrison of Fort Jackson turned on their officers, mutinied, and, after spiking their guns, surrendered to Butler’s troops (Landry 1938:76-79; Stewart 1904:272).
The following morning Duncan communicated news of the mutiny to his second in command at St. Philip, Lieutenant Edward Higgens. In a meeting with their officers, Duncan and Higgens agreed that it would be senseless to attempt to garrison both forts with their remaining troops withstand a Federal assault. The forts were surrounded by Butler’s troops, and the probability of the Confederate receiving reinforcements or supplies from New Orleans was remote. To Duncan and Higgens, surrender was the only logical decision to prevent useless bloodshed, as the forts would inevitable fall to the Northern Forces. Duncan communicated the decision to Mitchell, who decided that it would be best to destroy the Louisiana to prevent her from being captured.
Word of the Confederates’ decision to surrender was sent under a flag of truce downstream to the Union gunboat Owasco. The following day, 28 April 1862, four of Porter’s gunboats, the Winona, the Kennebec, the Westfield, and the Harriet Lane came upriver and anchored near Fort Jackson. There, a small boat was dispatched to bring Duncan and Higgens aboard the Harriet Lane, Porter’s Flagship, where the terms of the surrender were negotiated. The confederate commanders noted that the Rebel vessels would not be included in the surrender, as the army had no control over the navy. During the negotiations, the Louisiana was fired by Mitchell’s men. The Louisiana’s mooring ropes subsequently gave way, and the burning vessel, with loaded guns, drifted down on the Federal fleet finally to explode near Fort St. Philip. The blast did no harm to the Union gunboats; however it did kill one man and injure several others at St. Philip. Both Porter and Farragut viewed the firing of the Louisiana as a criminal attempt by Mitchell to destroy Porter’s gunboats while the surrender was being negotiated. Consequently, the Confederate naval commanders, when subsequently captured, were not paroled but sent north to Federal prison camps. The remainder of the defeated Rebel forces, including the Army officers, were paroled and taken to New Orleans where they were released. With word that Forts Jackson and St. Philip had surrendered, Union troops occupied the city and control of the Mississippi fell into northern hands (Landry 1938:80-83; Stewart 1904:250,274).
Available evidence suggest that life at Fort Jackson during the Civil War was empty and full of privation. The garrison that manned the fort during its attack by a Union fleet from April 15 to April 24, 1862, suffered simultaneously from flood, fire, fear, and lack of sleep. During the bombardment of Fort Jackson by Colonel David Porter’s 21 schooner mortar fleet, 7500 shells were lobbed into and around the fort. Two thousand 200-ib bombs fired by Porter’s 13-in mortars hit the fort on 17 April 1862 alone. At Fort Jackson, 9 were killed and 21 wounded, the only soldiers ever killed there defending their country.
Subsequent History
In October 1862 Forts Jackson and St. Philip were garrisoned by the 31st Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteers under the command of Colonel O. P. Gooding. His command included 16 commissioned officers and 341 enlisted men (National Archives 1965:521: October 1862). The following month, November 1862, Gooding reported that the strength of his garrison remained about equal to that of the preceding month with 9 officers and 354 enlisted men. In addition to these figures, his returns listed 74 prisoners confined and a total of 231 “Contrabands” (144 men, 38 woman, and 49 children) present at the forts (National Archives 1965:521: November 1862).
On 23 January 1863, Colonel Gooding turned his command over to Colonel Henry Rush of the 13th Maine Regiment. Fort Jackson was then garrisoned by Companies A, G, and I of the 13th Maine, while St. Philip had Companies B, E, and H of the 13th Maine and one company of the 1st Louisiana Colored Heavy Artillery. In mid-February, reinforcements, which included Companies D and F of the 13th Maine, arrived from Ship Island off the Mississippi Gulf Coast. The total number of Union troops stationed at Plaquemines Bend was then 627-307 at St. Philip and 320 at Fort Jackson (National Archives 1965:521: January-February 1862).
Until August, the 13th Maine manned the garrisons of the two forts. On 13 August, Rush’s regiments were relieved by 11 companies of the 4th Infantry, Corps d’Afrique, under the command of Colonel W. Drew. Throughout the remainder of August and until December, the forts were occupied by nearly 1,000 Black troops and 31 white officers. Fort St. Philip was garrisoned by Companies A, D, F, and I of the 4th Infantry Corps d’Afrique and Company A of the 1st Louisiana Colored Heavy Artillery; Fort Jackson was garrisoned by Companies B, C, E, G, H, and J of the 4th Infantry Corps d’Afrique (National Archives 1965:521: September-November 1862).
Drew’s second in command was Colonel Augustus Benedict, who was especially known for his severe and often cruel treatments of his Black command. On several occasions Benedict was observed by his fellow officers at St. Philip striking soldiers for small violations in uniform or conduct. During one instance, Benedict reportedly had a Black soldier stripped and staked spread eagle with molasses covering his hands, and feet, and face to attract ants. The virtual torture was carried out for two days (Winders 1987:313). At Fort Jackson, on 9 December 1863, Benedict again vented his anger on two Black drummers who had not turned out in their coats. The Negro garrison watched as Benedict flogged the two with a mule whip. Once Benedict left the parade, the angered troops rioted, stormed the armory, seized loaded weapons, and began firing aimlessly. The near mutiny that ensued was finally quietened by white officer who persuaded the soldiers to return to their quarters (Landry 1938:84; Winters 1987:313). After this incident, 12 officers and 272 enlisted men of the 83rd Ohio Volunteers under the command of Brigadier General William Dwight were brought in to maintain order at the forts (National Archives 1965:521 December 1863).
During the court martial that followed this incident, nine members of the Black garrison were found guilty of mutiny and were sentenced to hard labor. Two soldiers were convicted and sentenced to be shot; however, they were taken away from the forts, and their fate remains uncertain. Benedict was found guilty of administering cruel and unusual punishment and discharged from the service (Landry 1938:84) The post returns for December show that some 21 officers and 498 enlisted men of the 4th Infantry Corps d’Afrique remained at Plaquemines Bend, while 291, apparently those who participated in the near mutiny, were transferred. Although the returns are not specific to the cause, three men were discharged, an equal number deserted, and seven were listed as having died during December (National Archives 1965:521: December 1863). These numbers are unusually high in comparison to other months, and, apparently, they relate to the incident of 9 December 1863.
By mid-January 1864, things were back to normal at Jackson and St. Philip. The 83rd Ohio Volunteer group withdrew and command was returned to Colonel Drew. By February, only one company of the 4th Infantry Corps d’Afrique remained at Plaquemines Bend. That month Drew was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Jonathan Tarbell of the 91st New York Volunteer Infantry. The garrison then consisted of 12 officers and 433 enlisted men of that regiment; 4 officers and 112 men of the 1st Wisconsin Heavy Artillery; and 1 officer and 23 enlisted men of the Corps d’Afrique (National Archives 1965:521: February 1864). By March, when Brigadier General T. W. Sherman assumed command of the lower river defenses, the remaining company of the Corps d’Afrique had been relieved, although the New York and Wisconsin units remained.
During the following month, April 1864, Black troops were once again stationed at the forts. These included nearly 400 enlisted men of the 77th U. S. Colored Infantry under the command of Colonel Charles A. Hartsvell and 117 troops commanded by Captain E. P. Loring of the 7th U. S. Heavy (Colored) Artillery. On the June returns, Hartsvell commented on the quality of his command:
“The Men of this company as well as Cos. “H” “I” and “K”, all of which have recently been annexed to the 77” U. S. Cold. Inft. Cannot compare with the old Companies mentally, physically, or morally. Many are under age. Great culpability is due somewhere for the Enlistment of such men. [National Archives 1965:521: June 1864]”
For the remainder of 1864 until April 1866, the size of the garrisons stationed at Plaquemines Bend varied between nearly 1,000 and 400 troops. Primarily, the soldiers belonged to Black infantry and artillery units (National Archives 1965:521: July 1864-April 1866). From April 1866 through September of the same year, the size of the garrisons decreased. By September, only Companies A, B, and H of the 10th U. S. Colored Heavy Artillery remained at the forts with a total garrison of 143 enlisted men and five officers (National Archives 1965:521: April-September 1866).
In January 1867, Companies G and K of the 20th U. S. Infantry arrived at the forts and relieved the detachment of the 10th U. S. Colored Artillery. The garrisons then consisted of 3 officers and 108 enlisted men. During the following month, February, Companies D and F of the 39th U. S. Infantry, which consisted of 91 enlisted men and 2 officers, arrived at Forts Jackson and St. Philip. The two 20th Infantry regiments were then relieved and transferred to Alexandria and Shreveport. From February 1867 until March 1869, this detachment of the 39th Infantry commanded the two lower river forts (National Archives 1965: January 1867- March 1869).
On 16 April 1869, Companies B, D, and G of the 40th U. S. Infantry joined the post from the Department of the South and were consolidated with Companies D, F, and G of the 39th Infantry to form Companies B, C, and H of the 25th Infantry. On 26 April, Company H of the 25th Infantry was transferred to Opelousas, leaving the forts garrisoned with5 officers and 199 enlisted men (National Archives 1965: 522: April 1869). There was no change in the garrison of the two forts between April 1869 and the end of the year; however, there was a steady decrease in their size from 199 in April to 166 in December. This decrease resulted from the loss of men discharged at the end of their enlistment (National Archives 1965:522: April-December 1869).
In 1870, an Assistant Surgeon of the U. S. Army, P. F. Harvey, examined the fort for health purposes, and found it extremely wanting. There was no bathhouse or toilet facilities anywhere, the garrison being expected to use “a sink, built project over the water, on the remains of on old gunboat at the bank of the river.” There was not enough air space for soldiers to dress, rest, and eat of sleep in. The buildings lacked roof ventilators, sufficient windows, and overhangs. The fort grounds were constantly overflowed, and rainfall was exceeded only by mosquitoes. The humidity was so high that materials rusted or became soggy. In dry seasons, however, the cisterns could go dry, and the garrison would have to drink river water. In the moat were alligators and moccasins. Rattlesnakes in the vicinity were “Numerous and formidable,” one caught was reportedly about 12 feet long. There was no garden of library (Harvey 1870).
Only a few favorable points appeared in the report. Trees flourished in the vicinity—ash, cypress, white oak, willow, and wax myrtle, cottonwood, poplar. “The peach, plum, orange, banana, fig, and cherry are cultivated,” Harvey wrote. There were few extremes, and not much variation, of temperature. “A pleasant breeze from the gulf prevails throughout the day during summer,” Harvey (1870) continued, “and the nights are almost always cool enough for comfortable and refreshing sleep.” There was a new hospital on the bank of the river, 135 by 25 ft, shuttered, ventilated, and warmed by stoves; however, it lacked toilet facilities and a room for cadavers. Mail came twice a week.
Harvey noted that Creoles, Spanish, French, Germans, and Irish settled the vicinity “thinly.” “They follow agricultural pursuits chiefly,” he wrote. He failed to mention the Yugoslavs, whose numbers were growing in the region, and who farmed oysters, raised oranges, and made wine. (Harvey 1870:168-173).
Harvey’s report reiterated nearly 100 years later, conditions of life at the forts from the Spanish period forward. Environmental conditions made life hard, but provided a varied and nourishing diet, especially of shellfish, beef, and fruit, if vegetables were admittedly lacking. The swampy reserve around Fort Jackson could make life wet and mosquito-filled for days on end. The land was too low, snake-infested, and marshy for use other than cattle pasturage, especially outside of the fort’s levee.
In April 1870 the forts also served as a Union Military prison with the arrival of 31 convicts from Ship Island. Most of these men had received a dishonorable discharge from the Army and received sentences ranging from two to six years of hard labor for various crimes or breech of military conduct. The size of the convict population at Plaquemines Bend reached its peak of 99 inmates in July 1870. Throughout the remainder of 1870 until July 1871, the number of convicts imprisoned on the lower river ranged from 46 to 95 men, with an average prisoner population of 69 during that 12-month period (National Archives 1965:522, April 1870-July 1871).
Perhaps it was because of the vast swamps and marshes that surrounded the forts and the overall harsh environmental conditions in the region that few convicts escaped. During one attempt, on the night of the 15 July 1870, three convicts surprised a sentinel, took his rifle, and forced him to flee with them into the nearby countryside. A sergeant who was pursuing them caught the three and was forced to shoot one, a former private in the 6th cavalry, Charles A. Hampton. Apparently, Hampton had raised his captured rifle and was about to discharge it at the sergeant when the latter fired his gun. The bullet passed through the small end of Hampton’s rifle stock and killed him; the other two were returned to the forts and confined (National Archives 1965: 522: July 1870). On another occasion, two inmates who were being transported aboard the Steamer Philadelphia escaped and apparently were not recaptured (National Archives 1965:522: January 1871). In all, seven attempts at escape were recorded—four appear to have been successful.
In August 1870 approximately half the ordnance was removed from St. Philip. Of the 40 mounted pieces that had been maintained there in the previous months, only 24 (two 13-in mortars, five 100-pounder parrots, fifteen 10-in Rodmans, and two 15-in Rodmans) remained. Fort Jackson continued to mount 55 guns, including ten 24-pounders two 13-in mortars, five 100-pounder Parrotts, thirty-six 10-in Rodmans, and two 15-in Rodmans (National Archives 1965:522: August-September 1870). The removal of ordnance from St. Philip foretold the decline of the military importance of these lower river defensive structures. Within a year, on 7 July 1871, both Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip were abandoned by Special Order No. 124 issued from the Department of Texas.
During the Spanish-American war, more modern gun emplacements were erected at both forts, and St. Philip was established as an independent post. (Landry 1938:85), writing on the forts on the lower river, noted:
“When American relations with Spain began to be somewhat strained toward the latter part of the [nineteenth] century, the United States War Department started the construction of two modern batteries. Battery Miller, consisting of two large guns, was built on the outside of the moat near the river bank above Fort Jackson, while Battery Ransom, a more formidable armament, was erected inside the fort where the barracks had stood during the Civil War. Two heavy disappearing guns were mounted on Battery Ransom during the years of 1896 and 1897. Heavy pilings were driven side to side to form the foundation of heavy artillery. These guns were capable of discharging their shells at targets out in the bays back of Fort St. Philip where once General Butler was located with his troops during the bombardment of Fort Jackson.”
Various artillery units trained at the forts during the 1890s, and St. Philip received massive improvements shortly after the turn of the century (Landry 1938:85). On 16 April 1907 both Forts Jackson and St. Philip were made sub-posts of Jackson Barracks located in New Orleans; however, the former was occupied by a single ordnance sergeant, Marius Peterson, from November 1908 until June 1914 (National Archives 1965:521: November 1908- June 1914).
During World War I, both forts served as training facilities and points of embarkation for American troop’s enroute to Europe. After the War, both were declared surplus, and Fort Jackson was sold to H. J. Harvey of New Orleans in 1926 (Landry 1938:84-86). In 1960, Mr. and Mrs. Harvey donated the fort and a portion of the former military reservation to Plaquemines Parish. That same year, Forts Jackson and St. Philip were made National Historic Landmarks by the National Park Service. In 1962, Plaquemines Parish initiated extensive renovations to Fort Jackson, which it now operates as a museum (Plaquemines Parish Commission Council n.d.:4).
References:
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